1790s

AbolitionismPeking operaMetric systemLithographyEdward Jenner and the Invention of the VaccineReign of Terror
From top left, clockwise: Atlantic slave trade and abolitionism gain momentum over Europe and the Americas, as bans began to be enacted in countries such as Denmark-Norway (1803), the United Kingdom (1807), and Union States of the United States (1808) in the subsequent decade, following movements and upheavals of awareness at this period; Now-iconic Peking opera was conceived after the Four Great Anhui Troupes were brought into the dynasty capital to perform in Beijing, sometime in 1790; The metric system is formally adopted for the first time in France after receiving recommendation from its Commission of Weights and Measures. This set the metric system as a global default of measures and trail-blazed its universal acceptance as the standard of measures, outpacing the imperial system in the process; Smallpox vaccine was created in 1796 by British doctor Edward Jenner; a patent that would unknowingly lead to the eradication of smallpox, directly contributing to the world's first and only successful disease eradication campaign; The United States' very first contested presidential elections took place in 1796, who was eventually won over by John Adams; The cotton gin was first formally patented and came into industrial use in 1793, by American Eli Whitney. The modernized version of the engine paved way for much of the Industrial Revolution and enabled the textile industry to evolve and flourish more, due to its ability to separate cotton; French Revolutionary Wars broke out and culminated at this decade, where events such as the Reign of Terror (pictured) and the establishment of the French First Republic set off frenzied politics, birthing the idea of modern-day political spectrum in the process; Lithography was invented, revolutionising print methods, and increasing pragmatism over information processing. The decade also saw the beginning of the decline of Qing Dynasty.

The 1790s (pronounced "seventeen-nineties") was the decade that began on January 1, 1790, and ended on December 31, 1799. Considered as some of the Industrial Revolution's earlier days, the 1790s called for the start of an anti-imperialist world, as new democracies such as the French First Republic and the United States began flourishing at this era. Revolutions – both political and social – forever transformed global politics and art, as wars such as the French Revolutionary Wars and the American Revolutionary War moulded modern-day concepts of liberalism, partisanship, elections, and the political compass.

Events

1790

January–March

April–June

  • April 10 – The United States patent system is established.
  • May 13 – Battle of Reval: Gustav III of Sweden sends the battlefleet to eliminate the Russian squadron wintering at Reval (Estonia), but is defeated; 8 Russians, 130 Swedes are killed, up to 520 captured, 1 ship is burnt, another captured.
  • May 17–18 – Battle of Andros: An Ottoman–Algerian fleet destroys the fleet of the Greek privateer Lambros Katsonis.
  • May 26 – Congress passes an act to govern the creation of states from the "Southwest Territory", from which Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi will be formed.[2]
  • May 29 – Rhode Island ratifies the United States Constitution, and becomes the last of the 13 original states to do so.[2]
  • June 9 – Royal assent is given to establishment of the port of Milford Haven in Wales.
  • June 20 – Compromise of 1790: Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton come to an agreement: Madison agrees to not be "strenuous" in opposition for the assumption of state debts by the federal government; Hamilton agrees to support the capital site being above the Potomac.
  • June 23 – The alleged London Monster is arrested in London; he later receives 40 years for 10 assaults.

July–September

  • July – Louis XVI accepts a constitutional monarchy in France.
  • July 9 – Russo-Swedish War – Second Battle of Svensksund: In a massive Baltic Sea battle of 300 ships, the Swedish Navy captures one third of the Russian galley fleet: 304 Swedes are killed, 3,500 Russians killed and 6,000 captured, 51 Russian galleys and other rowing craft are sunk and 22 are taken.
  • July 10 — The U.S. House of Representatives votes 32–29 to approve creating the District of Columbia from portions of Maryland and Virginia for the eventual seat of government and national capital.[2]
  • July 12 – French Revolution: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed. This completes the destruction of the monastic orders, legislating out of existence all regular and secular chapters for either sex, abbacies and priorships.
  • July 14 – French Revolution: Citizens of Paris celebrate the unity of the French people and the national reconciliation, in the Fête de la Fédération.
  • July 16 – U.S. President George Washington signs the Residence Act into law, establishing a site along the Potomac River as the District of Columbia and the future site of the capital of the United States. The move comes after the bill is narrowly approved on July 1 by the Senate, 14 to 12, and on July 9 by the House, 32 to 29.[5] At the same time, plans are made to move the national capital from New York to Philadelphia until the Potomac River site can be completed.
  • July 26 – Alexander Hamilton's Assumption Bill, giving effect to his First Report on the Public Credit, is passed in the United States Congress, allowing the federal government to assume the consolidated debts of the U.S. states.
  • July 27 – The Convention of Reichenbach is signed between Prussia and Austria.
  • July 31 – Inventor Samuel Hopkins becomes the first to be issued a U.S. patent (for an improved method of making potash).
  • August 4 – A newly passed U.S. tariff act creates the system of cutters for revenue enforcement (later named the United States Revenue Cutter Service), the forerunner of the Coast Guard.
  • August 14 – The Treaty of Värälä ends the Russo-Swedish War.
  • September 25 – The Peking Opera is born, when the Four Great Anhui Troupes introduce Anhui opera to Beijing, in honor of the Qianlong Emperor's 80th birthday.
  • September 30 – Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor starts to rule.

October–December

  • October 7-22 – The Harmar Campaign ends in a defeat of U.S. Army General Josiah Harmar and Colonel John Hardin by the Western Confederacy of Indians, led by Chief Little Turtle or Mihšihkinaahkwa of the Miami tribe and Blue Jacket or Weyapiersenwah of the Shawnee at Kekionga (now Fort Wayne, Indiana).[2]
  • October 7 – Commissioners appointed by the New York legislature announce the successful conclusion of negotiations between New York and Vermont, concerning disputed real-estate claims, and the consent of New York's legislature to the admission to the Union of the state of Vermont as the 14th State (which was formed within what New York claimed as its territory, under an Order in Council, that King George III issued on July 20, 1764).
  • October 10 – At least 3,000 people die in Algeria when an earthquake and tsunami strikes the city of Oran. The city is destroyed and Spanish forces eventually flee in 1792.[6]
  • October–December – Vincent Ogé leads a rebellion of freed blacks in Saint-Domingue. The rebellion is suppressed and Ogé executed.
  • November 27 – France's Constituent Assembly passes a law requiring all Roman Catholic priests to swear an oath of acceptance of the new French Constitution.[7]
  • November 27 – U.S. President George Washington and his wife, Martha Washington, arrive in the new temporary U.S. capital, Philadelphia, and take up residence at the President's House located at 524 Market Street.[8]
  • December 2 – Holy Roman Empire forces recapture Brussels, bringing an end to the short-lived United States of Belgium and restoring the Austrian Netherlands.[9][10]
    December 22: Capture of Izmail
  • December 6 – The United States Congress opens its first session in the new temporary U.S. capital in Philadelphia.[11]
  • December 10 – The Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars begin in New South Wales, Australia, as a result of deterioration in relations and increasing colonization.
  • December 17 – The Aztec calendar stone is discovered at El Zócalo, Mexico City.
  • December 22 – Russo-Turkish War (1787–92): The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Alexander Suvorov and his Russian armies. During Suvorov's storm of Izmail, 26,000 Turkish soldiers lose their lives.
  • December 26 – Louis XVI gives his public assent to Civil Constitution of the Clergy during the French Revolution.

1791

January–March

April–June

July–September

October–December

  • October 1 – French Revolution: The Legislative Assembly (France) convenes.
  • October 9 – Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad is founded by Father Fermín Lasuén, becoming the 13th mission in the California mission chain.
  • October 19 – The Treaty of Drottningholm is signed between the Russian Empire and Sweden establishing an alliance between the two.[19][20]
  • October 28 – French Revolution: The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen is published in France.
  • November 4 – St. Clair's Defeat, the worst loss suffered by the United States Army in fighting against American Indians, takes place in modern-day Mercer County, Ohio. Miami fighters led by Chief Mihsihkinaahkwa (Little Turtle) and by Shawnee warriors commanded by War Chief Weyapiersenwah (Blue Jacket) rout the forces of General Arthur St. Clair and kill 630 U.S. soldiers, along with hundreds of civilians.[21]
  • December 4 – The first issue of The Observer, the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published in London.
  • December 5 – Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart dies early this morning aged 35 at his home in Vienna, having been bedridden since November 20 with a serious illness, perhaps acute rheumatic fever. On a mild and misty December 7, following a funeral service in St. Stephen's Cathedral, he is buried in a common unmarked grave (as customary at this time) in St. Marx Cemetery in the presence of Salieri, Süssmayr, van Swieten (his patron) and two other musicians.[22]

Date unknown

  • The School for the Indigent Blind, the oldest continuously operating specialist school of its kind in the world, is founded in Liverpool, England, by blind ex-merchant seaman, writer and abolitionist Edward Rushton.
  • Camembert cheese reputedly first made by Marie Harel, a farmer from Normandy.[23]
  • The Dar Hassan Pacha (palace) in the Casbah of Algiers is completed.[24]
  • The first printed manuscript of Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xueqin, one of the Classic Chinese Novels, begins publication posthumously.

1792

January–March

April–June

July–September

  • July 18 – Polish–Russian War: Battle of Dubienka – Soldiers of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, led by Tadeusz Kościuszko, resist an attack from Imperial Russian Army forces five times their size.
  • July 25 – Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Allied army issues the Brunswick Manifesto threatening the Parisians with military execution and complete destruction should the French royal family be harmed in any way.
  • August 10 – French Revolution: Insurrection of 10 August 1792 – The Tuileries Palace is stormed and Louis XVI is arrested and taken into custody.
  • August 29–September 2 – War of the First Coalition: Battle of Verdun – Prussian forces defeat French troops led by Nicolas-Joseph Beaurepaire.[30]
  • August 21 – Royalist Louis Collenot d'Angremont becomes the first person executed by guillotine for political reasons, in Paris.
  • September – Macartney Embassy: George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney, sails from Portsmouth in HMS Lion as the first official envoy from Great Britain to China.
  • September 2–7 – French Revolution: September Massacres – Rampaging mobs slaughter three Roman Catholic bishops and more than 200 priests, together with at least 1,000 other criminals.
  • September 11 – Six men steal some of the former French Crown Jewels from a warehouse where the revolutionary government has stored them.
  • September 12 – The town of Fort Borbon is founded by Governor Joaquín Alós y Bru. Nowadays it is called Fuerte Olimpo.
  • September 14 – Radical antimonarchist Thomas Paine flees from England to France after being indicted for treason. He is tried in absentia during December and outlawed.[31]
September 20: Battle of Valmy.

October–December

  • October 2 – The Baptist Missionary Society is founded in Kettering, England.
  • October 3 – A militia departs from the Spanish stronghold of Valdivia to quell a Huilliche uprising in southern Chile.[32]
  • October 12 – The first Columbus Day celebration in the United States is held in New York City, 300 years after his arrival in the New World.
  • October 13 – Foundation of Washington, D.C.: The cornerstone of the United States Executive Mansion (known as the White House after 1818) is laid.
October 29: Mount Hood is named.
  • October 29 – Mount Hood (Oregon) is named after British Admiral Lord Hood by Lt. William Broughton of the Vancouver Expedition, who spots the mountain near the mouth of the Willamette River.
  • November 6
    • War of the First Coalition: Battle of Jemappes – Austrian armies under the command of Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen are defeated in Belgium (at this time part of the Austrian Netherlands) by the French Army led by General Charles François Dumouriez.[33]
    • The second United States presidential election is held. Incumbent President George Washington receives all 132 electoral votes for president, and incumbent Vice President John Adams is re-elected with 77 of 132 votes, with George Clinton receiving 50.[26]
  • November 19 – France's National Convention passes a resolution pledging French support for the overthrow of the governments of other nations.[34]
  • December 3 – George Washington is re-elected president of the United States.
  • December 26 – The trial of Louis XVI of France begins.

Date unknown

  • Tipu Sultan invades Kerala, India, but is repulsed.
  • Hungarian astronomer Franz Xaver von Zach publishes The Tables of the Sun, an essential early work for navigation.
  • Claude Chappe successfully demonstrates the first semaphore line, between Paris and Lille.
  • Scottish engineer William Murdoch begins experimenting with gas lighting.
  • George Anschutz constructs the first blast furnace in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
  • Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, one of the earliest works of feminist literature, is published in London.
  • Barthélemy Catherine Joubert, future French general, becomes sub-lieutenant.
  • Johann Georg Albrechtsberger becomes Kapellmeister in Vienna.
  • The State Street Corporation is founded, in Boston, Massachusetts.
  • The Insurance Company of North America (later Chubb) is founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
  • Shiloh Meeting House, predecessor of Shiloh United Methodist Church in Lynchburg, Virginia, is founded.
  • The first written examinations in Europe are held at the University of Cambridge in England.
  • The composer Ludwig van Beethoven moves to Vienna from Bonn to study with Haydn. He would live in Vienna for the rest of his life.
  • James Johnstone establishes that Vancouver Island is an island.

1793

January–June

July–December

Undated

  • Eli Whitney invents a cotton gin. This causes a resurgence of slavery in the South.
  • Lawrence Academy (Groton, Massachusetts) is chartered.[44]
  • Dominique Jean Larrey, chief surgeon of the French Revolutionary Army, creates the first battlefield "flying ambulance" service.
  • The Al Bu Falah move to Abu Dhabi.
  • The first year of regular production begins for the United States Mint, and the half cent is minted for the first time.
  • Niccolò Paganini debuts as a violin virtuoso at age 11 in his birthplace of Genoa.

1794

January–March

April–June

July–September

October–December

Date unknown

  • The Ayrshire (Earl of Carrick's Own) Yeomanry, a British Yeomanry Cavalry Regiment, is formed by the Earl of Cassillis at Culzean Castle, Ayrshire.
  • The Oban distillery is built in Scotland.

1795

Map of India in 1795, map indicates the political end of the Mogul dynasty in India.

January–June

July–December

Undated

  • The Hudson's Bay Company trading post Fort Edmonton is constructed; the city of Edmonton, Alberta, eventually grows from it.
  • The British Royal Navy makes the use of lemon juice mandatory, to prevent scurvy.[68]
  • The harvest fails in Munich.
  • Daniel McGinnis discovers the supposed Money Pit on Oak Island, Nova Scotia. (according to one story)
  • Jim Beam is founded as Old Jake Beam Sour Mash.

1796

January–March

  • January 16 – The first Dutch (and general) elections are held for the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic. (The next Dutch general elections are held in 1888.)
  • February 1 – The capital of Upper Canada is moved from Newark to York.
  • February 9 – The Qianlong Emperor of China abdicates at age 84 to make way for his son, the Jiaqing Emperor.
  • February 15 – French Revolutionary Wars: The Invasion of Ceylon (1795) ends when Johan van Angelbeek, the Batavian governor of Ceylon, surrenders Colombo peacefully to British forces.
  • February 16 – The Kingdom of Great Britain is granted control of Ceylon by the Dutch.[69]
  • February 29 – Ratifications of the Jay Treaty between Great Britain and the United States are officially exchanged, bringing it into effect.[70]
  • March 9 – Widow Joséphine de Beauharnais marries General Napoléon Bonaparte.
  • March 20 – The U.S. House of Representatives demands that the U.S. State Department supply it with documents relating to the negotiation of the Jay Treaty; President Washington declines the request, citing that only the U.S. Senate has jurisdiction over treaties.[70]
  • March 26 – Napoleon Bonaparte arrives at Nice to take command of the Army of Italy (37,000 men and 60 guns), which is scattered in detachments as far as Genoa.[71]
  • March 30 – Carl Gauss obtains conditions for the constructibility by ruler and compass of regular polygons, and is able to announce that the regular 17-gon is constructible by ruler and compasses.

April–June

  • April 2 – The only night of the supposed Shakespearean play Vortigern and Rowena (actually written by William Henry Ireland) ends in the audience's laughter.
  • April 12 – War of the First Coalition – Battle of Montenotte: Napoleon Bonaparte gains his first victory as an army commander.
  • April 21 - War of the First Coalition - Battle of Mondovi: Napoleon Bonaparte decisively defeats the army of Piedmont Sardinia, leaving its capital of Turin defenseless. This convinces Piedmont to sign an armistice and withdraw from the war, turning the war in Italy decisively in France's favor.
  • April 26 – The French proclaim the Republic of Alba on the occupied territories. Two days later, King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia signs the Armistice of Cherasco, in the headquarters of Napoleon. The fortresses of Coni, Tortoni and Alessandria, with all their guns, are given up.[72]
  • April 27 – Case of the Lyons Mail: During the night, five highwaymen attack the mail between Paris and Lyon, kill the postmen and steal the funds sent to the armies in Italy.
  • April 28 – In an impassioned speech, U.S. Representative Fisher Ames of Massachusetts persuades his fellow members of the House to support the Jay Treaty.[70]
  • May 6 – Napoleon Bonaparte forms an advanced guard (3,500 infantry and 1,500 cavalry) under General Claude Dallemagne. He sends this force along the south bank of the Po River, to cross it with boats at Piacenza.[73]
  • May 10
    • War of the First Coalition – Battle of Lodi: General Napoleon Bonaparte defeats the Austrian rearguard, in forcing a crossing of the bridge over the Adda River in Italy. The Austrians lose some 2,000 men, 14 guns, and 30 ammunition wagons.
    • Persian Expedition of 1796: Russian troops storm Derbent.
  • May 14 – Edward Jenner administers the first smallpox vaccination, in England.
  • May 15 – Napoleon's troops take Milan.
  • May 20 – The last mock Garrat Elections are held in Surrey, England.
  • June 1
  • June 4 - The Siege of Mantua (1796-1797) begins when Napoleon lays siege to the city of Mantua, Austria's final stronghold in Northern Italy. The siege, and Austria's attempts to relieve it, will take the majority of the Italian campaign.
  • June 6–7 – Ragunda lake in Sweden bursts and drains completely leaving the Döda fallet dry.
  • June 21 – Scottish explorer Mungo Park becomes the first European to reach the Niger River.[69]
  • June 23 – Napoleon Bonaparte seizes the Papal States, which become part of the revolutionary Cisalpine Republic. Pope Pius VI signs the Armistice of Bologna, and is forced to pay a contribution (34 million francs).

July–September

  • July 10 – Carl Friedrich Gauss discovers that every positive integer is representable as a sum of at most 3 triangular numbers.
  • July 11 – The United States takes possession of Detroit from Great Britain, under the terms of the Jay Treaty.
  • July 21 – Mungo Park reaches Ségou, the capital of the Bamana Empire.
  • July 22 – Surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company name an area in Ohio Cleveland, after Gen. Moses Cleaveland, the superintendent of the surveying party.
  • July 29 – The Habsburg army under Marshal Wurmser advances from the Alps, and captures Rivoli and Verona. The French abandon the east bank of the Mincio River, the outnumbered division (15,000 men) of Masséna retreats towards Lake Garda.
  • August 4 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of Lonato – The French Army of Italy under Napoleon crushes an Austrian brigade.
  • August 5 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of Castiglione – The French Army of Italy under Napoleon defeats the Habsburg army (25,000 men) under Marshal Wurmser, who thus fails to break the Siege of Mantua (1796–97), and is forced to retreat north up the Adige Valley.
  • August 9 – The Wearmouth Bridge in England, designed by Rowland Burdon in cast iron, opens to traffic. Its span of 72 m (236 ft) makes it the world's longest single-span vehicular bridge extant at this date.[74][75][76]
  • August 10 – A mob of peasants overtakes the Convent of St. Peter (Bludenz, Austria) and murders Ignaz Anton von Indermauer.
  • August 19 – Second Treaty of San Ildefonso: Spain and France form an alliance against Great Britain.
  • September 2 – Jewish emancipation in the Batavian Republic (Netherlands).
  • September 8 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of Bassano – French forces (20,000 men) under Napoleon Bonaparte and André Masséna defeat the Austrians in Veneto. Wurmser retreats towards Vicenza with just 3,500 men of his original 11,000 left to him.
  • September 9 – French Revolutionary Wars: Action of 9 September 1796 – A naval engagement between French and British squadrons off Sumatra ends inconclusively.
  • September 9 – Grenelle camp affair, a failed uprising by supporters of Gracchus Babeuf against the French Directory
  • September 15 – Siege of Mantua: Napoleon Bonaparte fights a pitched battle at La Favorita on the east side of the Mincio River. The Austrians withdraw into the fortress of Mantua, which is crowded with nearly 30,000 men. Within six weeks, 4,000 die from wounds or sickness.[77]
  • September 17 – U.S. President George Washington issues his Farewell Address, which warns against partisan politics and foreign entanglements. In addition, he sets a precedent by declining to run for a third term. [70]
  • September 28 – Empress Catherine the Great signs an agreement with Great Britain, formally joining Russia to the coalition.

October–December

  • October 19 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of Emmendingen – Austrian forces force the French to retreat, but commanding generals on both sides are killed.
  • October – Jane Austen begins writing her first draft of Pride and Prejudice, under the title First Impressions (the book will not be published until 1813).
  • November 3 – John Adams defeats Thomas Jefferson, in the 1796 U.S. presidential election.
  • November 4 – The Treaty of Tripoli (between the United States and Tripoli) is signed at Tripoli (see also 1797).
  • November 6
    • Catherine the Great dies, and is succeeded by her son Paul I of Russia. His wife Sophie Marie Dorothea of Württemberg becomes Empress consort.
    • French forces (9,500 men) under Masséna attack the Austrian army at Fontaniva. After a desperate assault he is outnumbered, and forced to retreat to Verona.
  • November 12
    • Battle of Caldiero: French forces are defeated by the Austrians at Caldiero, and pushed back to Verona. This marks Napoleon's first defeat, losing nearly 2,000 men and 2 guns.[78]
    • Groton, New Hampshire is incorporated as a town.
  • November 17 – Battle of Arcole: French forces under General Napoleon defeat the Austrians at Arcole. After a bold maneuver, he outflanks the Austrian army (24,000 men) under Freiherr József Alvinczi, and cuts off its line of retreat. Alvinczi is forced to take up a defensive position behind the Brenta River.[78]
  • December – The British government begins work on a 40-acre (162,000 m²) site at Norman Cross, for the world's first purpose-built prisoner-of-war camp.[79]
  • December 7 – The U.S. Electoral College meets to elect John Adams president of the United States.
  • December 18 – British Royal Navy ship HMS Courageux is wrecked on the Barbary Coast with the loss of 464 of the 593 onboard.

Date unknown

  • The Spanish government lifts the restrictions against neutrals trading with the colonies, thus acknowledging Spain's inability to supply the colonies with needed goods and markets.
  • Robert Burns's version of the Scots poem Auld Lang Syne is first published, in this year's volume of The Scots Musical Museum.[80]
  • Annual British iron production reaches 125,000 tons.
  • Rizla rolling papers established.

1797

January–March

  • January 3 – The Treaty of Tripoli, a peace treaty between the United States and Ottoman Tripolitania, is signed at Algiers (see also 1796).
  • January 7 – The parliament of the Cisalpine Republic adopts the Italian green-white-red tricolour as their official flag (this is considered the birth of the flag of Italy).
  • January 13 – Action of 13 January 1797, part of the War of the First Coalition: Two British Royal Navy frigates, HMS Indefatigable and HMS Amazon, drive the French 74-gun ship of the line Droits de l'Homme aground on the coast of Brittany, resulting in over 900 deaths.
  • January 14 – War of the First Coalition – Battle of Rivoli: French forces under General Napoleon Bonaparte defeat an Austrian army of 28,000 men, under Feldzeugmeister József Alvinczi, near Rivoli (modern-day Italy), ending Austria's fourth and final attempt to relieve the fortress city of Mantua.
  • January 26 – The Treaty of the Third Partition of Poland is signed in St. Petersburg by the Russian Empire, Austria and the Kingdom of Prussia.
  • February 2 – Siege of Mantua: Field marshal Dagobert von Wurmser surrenders the fortress city to the French; only 16,000 men of the garrison are capable of marching out as prisoners of war.
  • February 3 – Battle of Faenza: A French corps (9,000 men) under General Claude Victor-Perrin defeats the forces from the Papal States, at Castel Bolognese near Faenza, Italy.
  • February 4 – The Riobamba earthquake in Ecuador, estimated magnitude 8.3, causes up to 40,000 casualties.
  • February 12 – "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" is first performed, with the music composed in January by Joseph Haydn, which also becomes the tune to the Deutschlandlied, the German national anthem (Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, later Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit).
  • February 14 – French Revolutionary Wars – Battle of Cape St. Vincent: The British Royal Navy under Admiral Sir John Jervis defeats a larger Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, Portugal.
  • February 18 – Invasion of Trinidad: Spanish Governor José María Chacón peacefully surrenders the colony of Trinidad to a British naval force, commanded by Sir Ralph Abercromby.
  • February 19 – Treaty of Tolentino: Pope Pius VI signs a peace treaty with Revolutionary France. He is forced to deliver works of art, treasures, territory, the Comtat Venaissin and 30 million francs.
  • February 22 – The last invasion of Britain begins: French forces, under the command of American Colonel William Tate, land near Fishguard, Wales.
  • February 25 – William Tate surrenders to the British at Fishguard.
  • February 26 – Bank Restriction Act removes the requirement for the Bank of England (the national bank of Great Britain) to convert banknotes into gold – Restriction period lasts until 1821. The Bank of England issues the first one-pound and two-pound notes (pound notes discontinued March 11, 1988).
  • March 5 – Protestant missionaries from the London Missionary Society land in Tahiti, from the Duff (celebrated as Missionary Day in French Polynesia).
  • March 13 – Médée, an opera by Luigi Cherubini, is premiered in Paris.
  • March 16 – Battle of Valvasone: The Austrian army, led by Archduke Charles, fights a rearguard action at the crossing of the Tagliamento River, but is defeated by Napoleon Bonaparte at Valvasone.
  • March 21 – Battle of Parramatta: Resistance leader Pemulwuy leads a group of aboriginal warriors, estimated to be at least 100, in an attack on a government farm at Toongabbie in Sydney, Australia.[81][82][83][84]

April–June

  • April 16 – The Spithead and Nore mutinies break out in the British Royal Navy.
  • April 17
    • Battle of San Juan: Sir Ralph Abercromby unsuccessfully invades San Juan, Puerto Rico in what will be one of the largest British attacks on Spanish territories in the western hemisphere, and one of the worst defeats of the British Royal Navy for years to come.
    • Veronese Easter: Citizens of Verona, Italy, began an unsuccessful eight-day rebellion against the French occupying forces.
  • April 18 – Armistice of Leoben: On behalf of the French Republic, a delegation under Napoleon Bonaparte signs a peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire at Leoben.[85]
  • May 10 – The first ship of the United States Navy, the frigate USS United States, is commissioned.
  • May 12 – War of the First Coalition: Napoleon Bonaparte conquers Venice, ending the city and Republic of Venice's 1,100 years of independence. The last doge of Venice, Ludovico Manin, steps down. The Venetian Ghetto is thrown open.
  • May 30 – English abolitionist William Wilberforce marries Barbara Ann Spooner about six weeks after their first meeting.
  • June 28 – French troops disembark in Corfu, beginning the First period of French rule in the Ionian Islands.
  • June 29 – Napoleon Bonaparte decrees the birth of the Cisalpine Republic; he appoints ministers and establishes the first constitution.

July–September

July 24: Battle of Santa Cruz
  • July 9 – U.S. Senator William Blount becomes the first federal legislator to be expelled from office, as his fellow Senators vote 25 to 1 to block him from his seat during an investigation against him on charges of criminal conspiracy.[86]
  • July 13 – Gual and España conspiracy against Spanish rule in Colonial Venezuela is exposed.
  • July 24 – Horatio Nelson is wounded at the Battle of Santa Cruz, losing an arm.
  • August 29 – Massacre of Tranent: British troops attack protestors against enforced recruitment into the militia at Tranent, Scotland, killing 11 and injuring 8.
  • September 4 – The Coup of 18 Fructidor is carried out in France as three of the five members of The Directory, France's executive council, arrested royalist members of the Council of Five Hundred, the national legislature, and discard the results of the spring elections.[87]
  • September 5 – France's new government decrees that citizens who left the country without authorization are subject to the death penalty if they return.[88]
  • September 30 – Dominique-Vincent Ramel-Nogaret, French finance minister, repudiates two thirds of France's debt.

October–December

October 11: Battle of Camperdown
  • October 11 – Battle of Camperdown: the British Royal Navy defeats the fleet of the Batavian Republic off the coast of Holland.[89]
  • October 17 – The Treaty of Campo Formio ends the War of the First Coalition.
  • October 18 – The XYZ Affair inflames tensions between France and the United States when American negotiators Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry meet with French government representatives Jean-Conrad Hottinguer, Pierre Bellamy and Lucien Hauteval and are told that a treaty between France and the U.S. will require payment of a bribe to France's Foreign Minister Charles Talleyrand and a large loan of American cash to France. Pinckney tells people later that his response was "No, no, not a sixpence!"; Hottinguer, Bellamy and Hauteval are referred to, respectively, as "X", "Y" and "Z" in U.S. government reports on the failed negotiations.[90]
  • October 21 – In Boston Harbor, the 44-gun United States Navy frigate USS Constitution is launched to fight Barbary pirates off the coast of Tripoli; the ship will remain in commission in the 21st century.
  • October 22 – André-Jacques Garnerin makes the first parachute descent, at Parc Monceau, Paris; he uses a silk parachute to descend approximately 3,000 feet (910 m) from a hot air balloon.
  • November – 1797 Rugby School rebellion: The students at Rugby School in England rebel against the headmaster, Henry Ingles, after he decrees that the damage to a tradesman's windows should be paid for by the students.[91]
  • November 16

Undated

1798

January–June

  • January – Eli Whitney contracts with the U.S. federal government for 10,000 muskets, which he produces with interchangeable parts.
  • January 4 – Constantine Hangerli enters Bucharest, as Prince of Wallachia.
  • January 22 – A coup d'état is staged in the Netherlands (Batavian Republic). Unitarian Democrat Pieter Vreede ends the power of the parliament (with a conservative-moderate majority).
  • February 10 – The Pope is taken captive, and the Papacy is removed from power, by French General Louis-Alexandre Berthier.
  • February 15 – U.S. Representative Roger Griswold (Fed-CT) beats Congressman Matthew Lyon (Dem-Rep-VT) with a cane, after the House declines to censure Lyon for earlier spitting in Griswold's face; the House declines to discipline either man.[94]
  • March – the Irish Rebellion of 1798 begins when the Irish Militia arrest the leadership of the Society of United Irishmen,[95] a group unique amongst Irish republican and nationalist movements in that it unifies Catholics and Protestants (Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist and others) around republican ideals. This month, Lord Castlereagh is appointed Acting Chief Secretary for Ireland and on March 30 martial law is proclaimed here. The first battles in the rebellion are fought on May 24 and it continues through September, but the rebels receive much less than the expected support from France, which sends only 1,100 men.
  • March 5 – French troops enter Bern.[96]
  • March 7 – French forces invade the Papal States and establish the Roman Republic.
  • April 7 – The Mississippi Territory is organized by the United States, from territory ceded by Georgia and South Carolina; later it is twice expanded, to include disputed territory claimed by both the U.S. and Spain (which acquired territory in trade with Great Britain).[94]
  • April 12 – The Helvetic Republic, a French client republic, is proclaimed following the collapse of the Old Swiss Confederacy after the French invasion; Aarau becomes the republic's temporary capital.
  • April 26 – France annexes Geneva.
  • April 30 – The United States Department of the Navy is established as a cabinet-level department. Benjamin Stoddert, a civilian businessman, is appointed as the first Navy Secretary by President Adams.[94]
  • May 7 – French Revolutionary Wars: A French force attempting to dislodge a small British garrison on the Îles Saint-Marcouf is repulsed with heavy losses.[97]
  • May 9 – Napoleon sets off for Toulon, sailing aboard Vice-Admiral Brueys's flagship L'Orient; his squadron is part of a larger fleet of over 300 vessels, carrying almost 37,000 troops.[98]
  • May 27 – Pitt–Tierney duel takes place on Putney Heath. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger fights a duel against opposition politician George Tierney
  • June 12
  • June 13 – Mission San Luis Rey de Francia is founded in California.
  • June 18 – The first of the four Alien and Sedition Acts, the Naturalization Act of 1798, is signed into law by U.S. President Adams, requiring immigrants to wait 14 years rather than five years to become naturalized citizens of the United States. On June 25, another law is signed authorizing the imprisonment and deportation of any non-citizens deemed to be dangerous.[94]

July–December

Date unknown

  • Edward Jenner publishes An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ, describing the smallpox vaccine, in London.
  • Thomas Malthus publishes An Essay on the Principle of Population (anonymously) in London.
  • Nathan Mayer Rothschild moves from Frankfurt in the Holy Roman Empire to England, settling up in business as a textile trader and financier in Manchester.
  • Alois Senefelder invents lithography.
  • The first census in Brazil counts 2 million blacks in a total population of 3.25 million.
  • The Ayrshire (Earl of Carrick's Own) Yeomanry, a British Army Yeomanry Cavalry Regiment, formed by The Earl of Cassillis at Culzean Castle, Ayrshire in 1794, is adopted onto the British Army List.
  • The platypus is first discovered by Europeans.

1799

January–March

April–June

  • April 16 – French Revolutionary Wars: At the Battle of Mount Tabor severely outnumbered French forces repulse an Ottoman attack.
  • April 27 – French Revolutionary Wars: The Battle of Cassano takes place outside of Milan, as Russian and Austrian troops commanded by General Alexander Suvorov rout the French Army under the command of General Jean Moreau.
  • April 28 – Two French diplomats to the Second Congress of Rastatt are killed and another badly injured by Austrian cavalry, as they tried to leave the town. An inquiry was held, which blamed French emigres.
  • May 4 – Battle of Seringapatam: Tipu Sultan is defeated and killed by the British, ending the captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam ends and concluding the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
  • May 21 – The Siege of Acre ends after two months; Napoleon's attempt to widen his Middle Eastern campaign into Syria is frustrated by Ottoman forces, and he withdraws to Egypt.
  • May 27 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Winterthur – Habsburg forces secure control of north-east Switzerland from the French Army of the Danube.
  • June 7 – War of the Second Coalition: First Battle of Zurich – Four days of fighting ends in victory for Archduke Charles and the Austrian army over the French army under André Masséna.
  • June 13 – Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies is restored to his kingdom following the collapse of the Parthenopean Republic.
  • June 17 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of the Trebbia – The beginning of the battle that marked the debacle of Étienne Macdonald's French army. Suvorov scores a comprehensive victory.
  • June 18 – French Revolutionary Wars: Action of 18 June 1799 – A French frigate squadron, under Rear-admiral Perrée, is captured by the British fleet under Lord Keith, off Toulon.

July–September

  • July 7 – Ranjit Singh's men take their positions outside Lahore.
  • July 12 – Ranjit Singh captures Lahore from the Bhangi Misl, a key step in establishing the Sikh Empire, and becoming Maharaja of the Punjab.
  • July 15 – In the Egyptian port city of Rosetta, French Captain Pierre Bouchard finds the Rosetta Stone.
  • July 25 – At Aboukir, Egypt, Napoleon defeats 10,000 Ottoman Mamluk troops under Mustafa Pasha.
  • August 15 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Novi – the defeat of Barthélemy Joubert's army by Suvorov's Austrian–Russian troops.
  • August 27 – War of the Second Coalition: Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland – Britain and Russia send an expedition to the Batavian Republic.
  • August 29 – Pope Pius VI, at this time the longest reigning Pontiff of the Roman Catholic Church, dies as a prisoner of war in the citadel of the French city of Valence, after 24½ years of rule.
  • August 30 – Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland: Vlieter Incident – A squadron of the Batavian Republic's navy, commanded by Rear-Admiral Samuel Story, surrenders to the British Royal Navy, under Sir Ralph Abercromby and Admiral Sir Charles Mitchell, near Wieringen, without joining action.
  • September 10 – Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland: Battle of Krabbendam – The Russo-British expedition force defends its initial gains from attacks by Franco-Dutch forces.[106]
  • September 18 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Mannheim – Victory of Archduke Charles and the Austrian army over a French force under Jacques Léonard Muller
  • September 19 – Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland: Battle of Bergen – Franco-Dutch forces hold their ground against the Russo-British expedition force.
  • September 23 – Frederick North, 5th Earl of Guilford, the Governor of British Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka), issues a proclamation declaring that the laws of the Netherlands for the conquered Dutch Ceylon shall be enforced until superseded by new laws.[107]
  • September 29 – The Second Roman Republic, a puppet state formed by the French Army after their dissolution of the Papal States and the occupation of Rome, is dissolved 19 months after its creation on February 15, 1798.[108]
  • September 30 – Suvorov's Swiss campaign: Battle of Muottental – the rout of Masséna's French troops by Suvorov's army.

October–December

  • October 2 – Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland: Battle of Alkmaar – The Russo-British expedition force wins a small tactical victory over the Franco-Dutch forces.
  • October 6 – Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland: Battle of Castricum – Franco-Dutch forces defeat the Russo-British expedition force.[109]
  • October 9 – HMS Lutine (a famous treasure wreck) is sunk in the West Frisian Islands.
  • October 12 – Jeanne Geneviève Labrosse becomes the first woman to jump from a balloon with a parachute, from an altitude of 900 metres (3,000 ft) over France.
  • October 16 – War of the Second Coalition: Action of 16 October 1799 – A Spanish treasure convoy worth more than £54,000,000 is captured by the British Royal Navy off Vigo.
  • October 18 – Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland: Anglo-Russian expedition forces surrender in North Holland.
  • November 5 – HMS Sceptre is driven ashore and wrecked in a storm in Table Bay, South Africa, with the loss of 349 and 41 survivors.[110]
  • November 9 – Coup of 18 Brumaire: Napoleon overthrows the French Directory in a coup d'état, which ends the French Revolution.
  • November 10 (19 Brumaire) – A remnant of the Council of Ancients in France abolishes the Constitution of the Year III, and ordains the French Consulate with Napoleon as First Consul, with the Constitution of the Year VIII.
  • November 30 – 1799–1800 Papal conclave opens in Venice at San Giorgio Monastery.
  • December 3 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Wiesloch: Austrian Lieutenant Field Marshal Anton Sztáray defeats the French at Wiesloch.
  • December 10 – France adopts the metre as its official unit of length.
  • December 14 – George Washington, first President of the United States, dies at Mount Vernon, Virginia, aged 67.
  • December 31 – The Dutch East India Company's charter is allowed to expire by the Batavian Republic.

Date unknown

  • The Place Royale in Paris is renamed Place des Vosges, when the Department of Vosges becomes the first to pay new Revolutionary taxes.
  • Eli Whitney, holding a 1798 United States government contract for the manufacture of muskets, is introduced by Oliver Wolcott Jr. to the concept of interchangeable parts, an origin of the American system of manufacturing.[111]
  • Conrad John Reed, 12, finds what he describes as a "heavy yellow rock" along Little Meadow Creek in Cabarrus County, North Carolina, and makes it a doorstop in his home. Conrad's father John Reed learns that the rock is actually gold in 1802, initiating the first gold rush in the United States.
  • The assassination of the 14th Tu'i Kanokupolu, Tukuʻaho, Tonga begins half a century of civil war in Tonga.
  • The Nawab (provincial governor) of Oudh in northern India sends to George III of Great Britain the Padshah Nama, an official history of the reign of Shah Jahan.
  • William Cockerill begins building cotton-spinning machinery in Belgium.
  • The small town of Tignish, Prince Edward Island, Canada is founded.

1790s also saw the beginning of the decline of Qing Dynasty.

Significant people

See also

  • List of state leaders in the 18th century

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